Front Cover -- The History of Alternative Test Methods in Toxicology -- The History of Alternative Test Methods in Toxicology -- Copyright -- Contents -- Contributors -- Biographical Notes -- CO-EDITORS -- CO-AUTHORS -- Preface to the Series -- Preface for The History of Alternative Test Methods in Toxicology -- 1 - Setting the Scene -- 1.1 - The Introduction and Influence of the Concept of Humane Experimental Technique -- 1. INHUMANITY AND THE THREE RS CONCEPT -- 2. PROGRESS FOLLOWING THE PUBLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES -- 3. ALTERNATIVES -- 4. PROGRESS IN THE 1980S -- 5. INTO THE 1990S -- REFERENCES -- 1.2 - Types of Toxicity and Applications of Toxicity Testing -- 1. THE NEED FOR TESTING -- 2. TYPES OF TOXICITY TEST -- 3. APPLICATIONS OF TOXICITY TESTING -- 4. RISK MANAGEMENT -- 5. THE REPLACEMENT OF ANIMAL TESTS -- 6. CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- 1.3 - The Key Technologies -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. TECHNOLOGY DRIVERS -- 2.1 Tissue Culture Systems -- 2.2 Reporter Gene Assays and Biosensors -- 2.3 Miniaturised and Large-Scale Culture Systems -- 2.4 Toxicogenomics and Proteomics -- 2.5 Other Enabling Technologies -- 3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- 2 - Contributions From Countries, Regions and Organisations -- 2.1 - Alternative Methods in Toxicity Testing in the UK -- 1. EARLY DAYS -- 2. THE FUND FOR THE REPLACEMENT OF ANIMALS IN MEDICAL EXPERIMENTS -- 3. THE NATIONAL CENTRE FOR THE THREE RS -- 4. OTHER ORGANISATIONS -- REFERENCES -- 2.2 - Contributions From the German-Speaking Countries -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM SWITZERLAND -- 2.1 The Foundation Research 3R -- 2.2 The Swiss Institute for Alternatives to Animal Testing -- 2.3 The Fondation Egon Naef Pour la Recherche In Vitro -- 2.4 Swiss Governmental Agency Support for the Three Rs Concept -- 3. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM GERMANY.

3.1 Zentralstelle zur Erfassung und Bewertung von Ersatz- und Ergaenzungsmethoden zum Tierversuch (ZEBET) -- 3.2 Reducing Animal Numbers in Regulatory Toxicity Testing -- 3.3 The Regulatory Acceptance of In Vitro Toxicity Tests Successfully Validated at ZEBET -- 3.4 The Funding of Research on In Vitro Toxicity Testing in Germany -- 3.5 ZEBET's Wider Activities -- 4. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM AUSTRIA -- 5. CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- 2.3 - Contributions to Alternatives From Italy and Spain -- 1. ACTIVITIES IN ITALY RELATED TO ALTERNATIVE METHODS -- 1.1 The Italian Association for In Vitro Toxicology -- 1.2 The Italian National Platform for Alternative Methods -- 1.3 The Italian National Reference Centre -- 1.4 The Three Rs Declaration of Bologna -- 2. ACTIVITIES IN SPAIN RELATED TO IN VITRO PHARMACOTOXICOLOGY -- 2.1 The ICLAS/CSIC Working Group on Complementary Methods -- 2.2 The Spanish Working Group on Alternative Methods -- 2.3 The 3ERRES Mailing List on Alternatives -- 2.4 Spanish Scientific Productivity Related to In Vivo and In Vitro Alternative Methods -- 2.5 The Inventory of the Spanish Institutions and Scientists Involved in Alternatives to the Use of Laboratory Animals -- 2.6 The Spanish Network for the Development of Alternative Methods -- REFERENCES -- 2.4 - Contributions to Alternatives From The Netherlands, Belgium and France -- 1. DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVES TO TOXICITY TESTING IN THE NETHERLANDS -- 1.1 Early Years -- 1.2 Recent Technological Developments -- 1.3 Organisational Frameworks -- 1.3.1 National Initiatives -- 1.3.2 International Initiatives -- 1.4 Implementation of Alternatives -- 1.5 Conclusions -- 2. DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVES TO TOXICITY TESTING IN BELGIUM -- 2.1 Early Years -- 2.2 More-recent Three Rs Developments in Belgium -- 3. DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVES TO TOXICITY TESTING IN FRANCE -- 3.1 Early Years.

3.2 Recent Technological Developments -- 3.3 Organisational Frameworks -- 3.4 Implementation of Alternatives -- 3.5 Conclusions -- REFERENCES -- 2.5 - Contributions of the Scandinavian Countries to the Development of Non-Animal Alternatives in Toxicology -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. THE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF ALTERNATIVE IN VITRO METHODS -- 2.1 Cell Toxicology -- 2.2 Neurotoxicology -- 2.3 Ocular Toxicology -- 2.4 Tissue Modelling -- 2.5 Reproductive Toxicology -- 2.6 Toxicokinetics and Biotransformation Modelling -- 2.7 Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity Testing In Vitro -- 2.8 Ecotoxicology -- 2.9 Skin Sensitisation -- 3. ALTERNATIVES IN INDUSTRY -- 4. FINANCING RESEARCH ON NON-ANIMAL ALTERNATIVES, 1980-2016 -- 5. RESEARCH CENTRES ESTABLISHED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF NON-ANIMAL METHODS -- 6. EDUCATION AND NON-ANIMAL METHODS -- 7. CONCLUDING COMMENTS -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- 2.6 - The Three Rs and Alternatives in the VisegrAd (V4) Countries -- 1. CENTRAL EUROPEAN COUNTRIES JOIN WESTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES IN THE EU -- 2. INITIAL THREE RS DEVELOPMENTS IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA -- 3. THREE RS ACTIVITIES IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC -- 3.1 The TEMPUS Joint European Project -- 3.2 World Congresses on Alternatives -- 3.3 Visit of Professor William Russell in 1997 -- 3.4 Alternatives Conference in Prague, 2001 -- 3.5 SSCT Meeting, 2009 -- 3.6 Major Collaborations -- 3.7 Government Organisations -- 3.8 The State Veterinary Administration -- 4. ACTIVITIES IN SLOVAKIA -- 4.1 Early Developments in Slovakia -- 4.2 The National Scientific Network on Alternative Methods -- 4.3 The Slovak Toxicology Society -- 4.4 Interdisciplinary Toxicology -- 4.5 The State Veterinary and Food Administration of the Slovak Republic -- 4.6 The Private Sector -- 4.7 International Collaboration -- 5. ACTIVITIES IN HUNGARY -- 5.1 Organisations -- 5.2 Governmental Institutions.

5.3 The Private Sector -- 5.4 International Collaborations -- 5.5 Journal -- 6. THREE RS DEVELOPMENTS IN POLAND -- 6.1 Animal Experimentation in Poland -- 6.2 The Promotion of Alternatives -- 6.3 International Scientific Collaboration -- 6.4 Concluding Comment -- REFERENCES -- 2.7 - Australia and New Zealand -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. THE 1989 AUSTRALIAN SENATE REPORT -- 3. LOCAL FACTORS -- 3.1 The Australian Anti-Venom Industry -- 3.2 Facial Eczema in Sheep -- 4. PARALYTIC SHELLFISH TOXIN -- 5. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING -- 6. COSMETICS TESTING -- 7. ORGANISATIONS -- 8. CURRENT REGULATORY INTEREST -- 9. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- 2.8 - Japanese Contributions to the Development of Alternative Test Methods -- 1. THE JAPANESE SOCIETY FOR ALTERNATIVES TO ANIMAL EXPERIMENTS -- 1.1 JSAAE Activities -- 1.2 International Cooperation -- 1.3 What Is Next for the JSAAE? -- 2. THE BACKGROUND TO JACVAM -- 2.1 What Is JaCVAM's Role? -- 2.2 Regulatory Acceptance and Ongoing Studies -- REFERENCES -- 2.9 - Contributions to the Development of Alternatives in Toxicology in China and Brazil -- 1. INTRODUCTION: ALTERNATIVES IN CHINA AND BRAZIL -- 2. ALTERNATIVES IN CHINA -- 2.1 History of Animal Use Regulations in China -- 2.2 The Regulatory Framework in China -- 2.3 Movement Toward the Use and Validation of Alternative Methods in China -- 2.4 Support for, and Regulatory Implementation of, Alternatives Within China -- 2.5 Special Difficulties or Hurdles to Accepting and/or Using Alternative Methods -- 2.6 Future Outlook for Alternatives in China -- 3. ALTERNATIVES IN BRAZIL -- 3.1 History of Animal Use Regulations in Brazil -- 3.2 The Regulatory Framework in Brazil -- 3.3 Movement Toward the Use and Validation of Alternative Methods in Brazil -- 3.4 Support for, and Regulatory Implementation of, Alternatives Within Brazil.

3.5 Special Difficulties or Hurdles to Accepting and/or Using Alternative Methods -- 3.6 Future Outlook for Alternatives in Brazil -- REFERENCES -- 2.10 - The Role of ECVAM -- 1. THE EARLY YEARS OF ECVAM, 1991-2002 -- 1.1 Validation -- 1.2 Workshops and Task Forces -- 1.3 Biologicals -- 1.4 In-house Research -- 1.5 Collaboration in Education and Training -- 1.6 The ECVAM Scientific Information Service -- 1.7 Collaborations -- 1.8 Summary -- 2. THE EVOLUTION OF ECVAM AND ITS NETWORKS -- 3. ECVAM ACTIVITIES IN THE CONTEXT OF EU POLICY DRIVERS FOR ALTERNATIVES -- 3.1 EU Legislation on Cosmetic Products -- 3.2 The EU Chemicals Policy - REACH -- 3.3 Other EU Chemicals Policies Relevant to Alternatives -- 3.4 The European Citizens' Initiative `Stop Vivisection' -- 4. ECVAM'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO INTERNATIONAL HARMONISATION ACTIVITIES WITHIN THE OECD -- 4.1 OECD Projects of the TGs Programme Currently (Co-)led by ECVAM -- 4.2 Activities of ECVAM in the OECD Extended Advisory Group for Molecular Screening and Toxicogenomics -- 4.3 Activities of ECVAM in the OECD Working Party on Hazard Assessment -- 5. FUTURE OUTLOOK -- REFERENCES -- 2.11 - The Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing in the USA and Europe -- 1. CAAT‒USA -- 2. CAAT‒EUROPE -- 3. THE CAAT PROGRAMMES -- 3.1 The Grants Programme -- 3.2 The Avon Programme Project -- 3.3 The Communications Programme -- 3.4 Workshops and Technical Reports - The t4 Programme -- 3.5 Education Programmes -- 3.6 The Refinement Programme -- 3.7 US and EU Policy Programmes -- 4. FROM A SYMPOSIUM SERIES TO WORLD CONGRESSES -- 5. TOXICOLOGY TESTING IN THE 21ST CENTURY - THE HUMAN TOXOME PROJECT -- 6. THE EVIDENCE-BASED TOXICOLOGY COLLABORATION -- 7. THE GREEN TOXICOLOGY COLLABORATION -- 8. THE READ-ACROSS PRACTICE COLLABORATION -- 9. THE GOOD CELL CULTURE PRACTICE COLLABORATION -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES.

2.12 - USA: ICCVAM and NICEATM.